poor. Four out of five Chinese people lived in rural areas. Economic reform resulted in rapidly rising wages and productivity improvements, prompting China’s transformation from an agricultural society to an industrial nation. Today, three out of five Chinese people live in urban areas, and this development has enabled better living standards for several hundred million people in terms of health, education, social security, etc. From a GDP of USD 150 billion in 1978, in 2010 China overtook Japan as the world’s second-largest economy and in 2017 its GDP had reached USD 12.2 trillion. Measured in purchasing power parity, China is now the world’s largest economy and, according to forecasts, in around 2030 China could become the world’s largest economy in nominal terms, too. Today, China accounts for 15 per cent of total global GDP, and has accounted for 40 per cent of global growth since 2008. China’s system of government In practice, China is a one-party state without general and free elections. The state apparatus is permeated by the Communist Party. Political opposition is not permitted, and since General Secretary of the Communist Party Xi Jinping assumed office in 2012, the Party’s power and Xi Jinping’s position have been strengthened considerably. The judicial system is not independent, and the Party is expanding its control over all parts of society. Human rights such as general freedom of opinion, expression, the press, association, demonstration and religion are restricted. The media are used to control opinion, and civil society space has shrunk. Chinese law provides equal rights for women and men in many respects. In practice, however, considerable challenges to gender equality remain. The situation of minorities, particularly Muslim Uighurs, in Xinjiang is very serious. A large number of people have been forced into ‘re-education camps’, and restrictions on religion and freedom of movement are particularly prevalent. Disproportionately tough penalties for crimes against national security remain more common in cases concerning minorities, particularly in Xinjiang and Tibet. The number of people executed each year is a state secret, but is estimated at around two thousand, which is the highest in the world. The Chinese justice system is sometimes exploited in conflicts with other countries, with foreign nationals in China being subjected to threats, various forms of pressure and even arrest. There are cases of forced public ‘confessions’. There are also cases where Chinese agents have arrested both Chinese nationals and non-nationals abroad and illegally taken them to China. In certain cases, China does not fully respect international agreements on consular access, among other things. Economy hallmarked by state involvement 4 The Party’s continuing rule is largely built on the ability to deliver economic growth and increasing prosperity. The economy has developed, as illustrated for example by the emergence of a number of major global enterprises. There is considerable state involvement in the Chinese